Positivist versus interpretivist approaches to questionnaires

Am I looking to take a logical positivist approach using methods that generate evidence of a quantitative nature? Facts obtained through closed questions in a questionnaire or through statistical data. Both of which are unquestionably reliable due to the ease of measurability. Furthermore it is evidence that is viewed objective and value-free. Within research, the objectivist outcome for this proposal being investigational or partly- experimental validation of my hypothesis. The subjectivist outcome however being the relationship between that which has been signified and the data which points to the signifier, moreover research would hopefully result in a clear product; that being subsequent action advocated as good practice.
The term positivism is historically associated with Auguste Compte, who was a nineteenth-century French philosopher. Oldroyd (1986) states:

It was Comte who consciously ‘invented’ the new science of society and gave it the name to which we are accustomed. He thought that it would be possible to establish it on a ‘positive’ basis, just like the other sciences, which served as necessary preliminaries to it. (p.170)

Cohen et al suggest that: ‘ Positivism may be characterized by its claim that science provides us with the clearest possible ideal of knowledge’. (2000:p.9)

Or am I looking to take an interpretive approach, to gain evidence that explores individual insight into their understanding of what is happening around them and looks at the motives that lay behind their actions. In Maxwell study of validity in qualitative research, cited in Huberman & Miles (2002), he seems to suggest that in pursuit of validity the emphasis should be on understanding as the primary basis of analysis. (p.p.37-64). However I would argue that ones understanding or deductive ability to look for a signifier, or theme in qualitative data, can be very different than that construed as evidence by another. Although I have a very definite agenda and clear hypothesis I need to be aware of what Holliday (2002) defines as our 'own perceptions and biases' which influence what we 'see and find' (p.175).

In acknowledgement of Maxwells (1992) understanding of qualitative methods as cited in Cohen et al (2000), the following is an abridge of his list of five kinds of validity. (p.107)

1. descriptive validity as in truth - what actually happened
2. interpretive validity as in my ability to capture the meaning and intention of situations and events
3. theoretical validity as in knowledge acquired and researched that I bring into the equation
4. generalizability as in the transversive nature of understanding from one scenario being applied to another to aid understanding
5. evaluative validity as in the intrusive nature of ones own critical-theoretical perspective
   

I have created a framework in the form of a table,  to help me identify the areas of research being undertaken and to establish what I am looking for and the type of evidence best suited to gather that data. This hopefully will lead to making the creation of questionnaires that are not only concise and economic in their content, but effective due to the choice of information requested. I had intended uploading my table into the blog. Unfortunately, I have not as yet worked out how to do this, but am happy to share this format. If you would like a copy either email me or leave me a contact email in the comments box.

References:

Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2000) Research Methods in Education. (5th Ed). London, RoutledgeFalmer

Maxwell, J.A. Chapter Two. Understanding and Validity in Qualitative Research. In: Huberman, A.M & Miles, M.B. (eds.)(2002) The Qualitative Researcher's Companion. London, Sage. pp. 37-64

Oldroyd, D. (1986) The Arch of Knowledge: An Introductory Study of the History of the Philosophy and Methodology of Science. New York, Methuen

Variables that influence validity and reliability

Within a previous posting, 'Reflexivity in Emancipatory Action Research', it was acknowledge that variables can emanate from 'perception of understanding', 'historical interpretation' and 'empirical knowledge' of individuals. (Horsley, 2009). 

Another variable to bear in mind is that of the type of learner involved in action research. Whether that participation be active or passive, through observation of, or reflection on. Be it statistical, quantitative or qualitative evidence based. Learner groups can be very different, even if some elements might show characteristics reminiscent of previous students. The overall diversity of participants can manifest very different results in research. 

Resources and strategies used for a specific programme of induction by one faculty, may not necessarily be considered generic for use for all faculties across college. Its success being affected by the variable needs and perceptions of different learners. However, the successful elements of a specific programme could become the building blocks that other departments expand upon and take ownership of. Showalter (2003) states:

'One of the best aspects of the work of teaching is that, unlike scholarship, it does not have to be original to be good. We can borrow ideas and methods from our colleagues and our predecessors, dead or alive: we can imitate, copy, and plunder in the confidence that our students will benefit from every good teaching technique we can put into action in our own classroom.' (p.9)

Furthermore Stringer (1999) states:

'Collaborative processes not only generate a sense of purpose and energy but also provide the means for the accomplishment of goals and the solution of problems and produce conditions that enhance participants' personal, social, and professional lives.' (p.189)

Therefore, to ensure validity for the purpose of this research, it is proposed that a control group be used to reduce variables. this will consist of three similar tutorial groups from across all three colleges:

Group A to follow normal induction programme

Group B to follow a specific two-week induction programme

Group C to follow the specific programme but with additional training given

Hopkins (2008) states:

'If the various threats to validity are not taken into account, then one cannot claim that one's interpretation is correct. The existence of possible sources of invalidity potentially offer plausible, rival interpretations to our findings when we do not account for them.' (p.140).

Another aspect for consideration, is that of reliability. To truly understand reliability in the context of educational research, a definition needed to be created. The result was as follows:

Reliable action research employs a process of methods that can replicate evidence which is constant in its equivalence over a span of time, if carried out on a comparable learner group.

McCormick and James (1989) state:

'Basically reliability is concerned with consistency in the production of results and refers to the requirement that, at lease in principle, another researcher, or the same researcher on the same occasion, should be able to replicate the same piece of research and achieve comparable evidence and results.' (p.188)

A second cycle of qualitative and quantitative questionnaires and statistical evidence would be desirable after dissemination of a specific induction pack across college in its entirety. If only for evaluation of its effectiveness, but more importantly to show credibility and stability of findings over a span of time.

References:

Hopkins, D. (2008) A Teacher's Guide to Classroom Research. Bershire, Open University Press. p. 140

McCormick, R. and James, M. (1989) Curriculum Action Research. (2nd Ed). London, RoutledgeFalmer

Showalter, E. (2003) Teaching Literature. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers. p. 9

Reflexivity in Emancipatory Action Research

This post explores the desired spontaneity of unrestrictive research, free of bias and theory-laden interpretation of the researcher, me. Hall's (1996) thoughts on reflexivity in emancipatory action research form the basis of this blog entry.

In order to investigate this thought let us remind ourselves of the outline of intended research and hypothesis which is as follows:

If the improvement of retention, attendance and learner cohesion is dependent upon the induction process, then following a specific two week induction programme will increase learner achievement and place the college comfortably within the 75th percentile.

As well as the areas of intended research and methods of data collection:

1. Attendance and retention levels of learners, post invitation for interview and attendance of induction, derived from sight of statistical evidence, questionnaires and interviews with curriculum coordinators and or line managers.
2. Cohesion of tutorial groups and current attendance levels obtained through sight of updated statistical evidence, questionnaires and interviews with lecturers of tutorial groups and curriculum coordinators.
   

Lastly, the desired outcome and second stage of research after triangulation of evidence:

1. A controlled test of a specific two-week induction programme involving three departments of similar ilk to minimize the inconsistencies of variables.
2. Department 'A' to follow their normal induction programme
3. Department 'B' to follow a specific two-week programme of induction as stipulated in an induction pack provided.
4. Department 'C' to follow the same specific programme of induction, but with additional training on its contents, together with strategies as to how to engage with disengaged learners to promote cohesion amongst tutorial groups.
5. Analysis of statistical evidence of attendance, retention and cohesion using the same questionnaires or similar if upon reflection revision where required.

It is my intention to remain as impartial as possible, but I am acutely aware that ones own understanding and perception of what is read, may be very different from that intended by the author. In the same light what is proposed as a course of action from a directive, might be interpreted and acted upon very differently by individuals in receipt of that instruction. In essence a variable based on perception. Furthermore, interpretations of what happened historically over a span of time, can be very subjective and argued unquestionably as established facts. This is due to the participants' unassailable empirical knowledge through his or her own interpretation of personal experiences. 

Hall's (1996) suggests that one should be aware of the natural way we identify, underpin and construct our rational and respondent behaviour towards everyday situations. She further elucidates that a post-structuralist approach 'makes way' for and 'builds toward' knowledge that can be viewed as challenging, worldly and evolving, or to use Hall's words, 'contested, temporal and emergent'. Hall also explains the importance of becoming self-aware and knowing when it is right to 'reveal' aspects of 'self' to help the reader comprehend and gain a holistic overview of the research from conception, process through to product.

To help with the empirical phase of research, in light of Hall's (1996) views, it would be prudent to find a critical friend to help develop emancipatory practice. It would appear that spontaneity is fundamental for unrestrictive research. Essential as it represents the basic philosophy surrounding the theoretical position underpinning emancipatory action research. 

It is also important to acknowledge Hall's (1996) views on the privileged position of the researcher. When looking for the signifier of what is signified, it will be hard to remain objective and put aside my own theory-laden views. This is due to ones own experience of delivering a specific two-week induction programme which has proved successful. Hall suggests that we assume superiority. Believing ourselves to be 'somehow more qualified to account for what is happening than those who are participating in the situation.' (Hall, 1996. pp.28-48). For this reason we need to have an understanding of experiential research and carefully expedite discernment and our position of inherent partiality.

References:

Hall, S. Chapter Three. Reflexivity in Emancipatory Action Research: Illustrating the Researcher's Constitutiveness. In: Zuber-Skerritt, O. (ed) (1996) New Directions in Action Research. London, RoutledgeFalmer. pp. 28-48.

Research Proposal Specification

Research Title: 

Can a specific two week induction process improve retention, attendance and cohesion of tutorial groups in a further education college?

Straight away I am torn by the realization that this could lead to an area of research, that may be unmanageable, due to the scope of methods required to triangulate what is effectively three areas of research:

1. retention levels
2. attendance levels
3. cohesion of tutorial groups

Furthermore, levels will greatly be affected by the societal, demographical background and age of individual learners,  as well as chosen area of study. Therefore, to avoid bias, a cross section of data collection across the college population would be desirable. This would add to the amount of data needed to show impartiality.

Lastly, intended research assumes that there is a problem, where upon research there may in fact be none. 

Investigation Aims:

To discover if levels of retention, attendance and learner outcomes of NEETs on the January Starts programme was linked to the type, length and content of induction programme delivered.

Investigation Objectives:

1. To compare statistical data of student retention amongst the different fast-track courses 
2. To evaluate retention and attendance levels amongst the different fast-track courses
3. To establish whether this was prevalent to particular fast-track courses or whether it was due to the type of learner enrolled
4. To compare the type of induction programme delivered by the different fast-track courses
5. To establish if learner outcomes can be increased by following a bespoke induction programme
6. To categorize and compare learners on different fast-track courses to support or counter a link between the type of induction programme delivered and improvement of retention, attendance and learner outcome

Initial Hypothesis

If  the improvement of retention, attendance and learner cohesion is dependent upon the induction process, then following a specific two week induction programme will increase learner achievement and place a college comfortably within the desired 75th percentile.

 

or

Does following a specific two week induction programme, increase learner achievement and place a college comfortably within the 75th percentile?

Rational:

The motivation for this research emanates from the seeing the benefits of following a specific two week induction process, for both learners and lecturers involved in the delivery of an e2e programme. Although the success of which is very much dependent upon the tutor taking a holistic approach to teaching, as well as having a depth of understanding of the character of a NEET learner. 

The learner characteristics are that all learners are on an e2e programme due to their complex multiple needs. Some needs arise from a variety of negative stimuli throughout their early years. Stimuli caused by dysfunctional family backgrounds, the demography of their local environment or involvement with gangs etc. Bad prior learning experiences or educational gaps due to exclusion, teenage pregnancy or time at a pupil referral unit. Although needs differ, the affect of this for each often manifests as a confrontational conduct within the classroom. They can not be viewed as your typical learner. The overall aim for them is, learning to learn again.

Because of the successes generated within the programme, it was poses the question of whether this accomplishment can be repeated within other departments.

Another rational consideration is in relation to preparing for he implementation of Progression Pathways within the Foundation Learning Tier. It is the intention of the Learning Skills Council that 'Progression Pathways will be fully implemented across publicly funded entry level and level 1 provision by 2010' (QCA, 2008:3). The implementation is to be phased in through pilots across different educational institutes. One of which is to be Croydon College, who intends to pilot a progression pathway in two teaching areas, Students with Learning Difficulties and Disabilities (SLDD) and to replace an Entry to Employment (e2e) route. 

The QCA advocate that induction should be over a period of weeks rather than days. Therefore by researching the effects and benefits of a more comprehensive induction process, could prove essential in preparation of a coherent programme of induction, with realistic solutions and possible training needs identified for those involved delivering an induction programme, in readiness of a broader post-pilot delivery of the new curriculum across college, in line with the LSC and LSIS guidelines.

Conceptual Themes:

This proposed research aims to highlight four themes which focus upon the current induction process within a further education college and the subsequent levels of retention, attendance and cohesion of learners. 

1. The first theme will examine the context and content of existing induction programmes within a cross section of faculties, compared with that provided by the e2e team.
2. The second theme will look at variables which affect attitude towards learning and cohesion of tutorial groups, and the possible limitations of current approaches to induction provision. 
3. The third theme would be a critical analysis of the dissemination and utilization of a specific induction pack and the issues around ownership, participation and equity. 
4. Lastly, theme four would propose that following a specific two week induction programme, will increase retention and participation of learners  and place the college comfortable within the 75th percentile.
   

Description of Settings:

Research will take place at a South East further education college, which comprises of three separate colleges, Sixth Form, Skills and Enterprise and Higher Education. It is one of the largest providers of further and higher education in the South East. Providing learners with a comprehensive range of qualifications. The equilibrium of gender for 16-18 year olds is balanced, but amongst adult learners the ratio is 3:2. As for the demography of the local community being reflected in the profile of the learner group, the Croydon College's 2008 Equality and Diversity Report states:

'Learners from minority ethnic groups are well represented at the College. The College is particularly successful in attracting Black learners. However, white British learners are declining and are not under-represented. This profile has changed by over 5% for 2007/08 with white male students seeing the largest decline.' (2008:p.1).

However this under-representation is not evident amongst the profile of e2e learners where one Progression Pathway is to be piloted. It is the successes of this department which will be used as a bench of comparison against other faculties.

For the purpose of the research proposal, data would be collected from faculties across the Skills for Life College.

Proposed Compilation of Evidence: 

Also see 'McNiff: Proposed Stages of Action'  stages 1 - 4  on Blog below

Literature review of theories pertaining to:

1. NEETs - research areas - Japan - America - Australia - Scotland & England
   
2. Disengaged youths - area of research - demographical and social influences on childhood

Research evidence:

1. statistics on retention and attendance - in particular that pertinent to the 'January Starts' initiative
2. comparison of induction programmes across faculties, evidence to be generated from questionnaires or interviews completed by tutors
3. insight into cohesion of different tutorial groups in different faculties, evidence to be generated from questionnaires or interviews completed by tutors
4. possible historical evidence pertaining to engagement of youths and various induction programmes in other countries or colleges
5. evaluation of both strengths and limitations of evidence collected

Summary:

1. interviews
2. questionnaires
3. statistics

Ethical Considerations: to ensure

1. research is not in opposition to any college guideline or directive
2. collection of research does not cause undue harm to participants
3. informed consent is obtained from participants, making certain that participants are not deceived about the purpose of the research
4. that anonymity of participants be ensured unless otherwise directed by them
5. that any personal data collected from participants will be held in complience with the requirements of the Data Protection Act

Proposed Methods of Analysis:

1. content analysis - comparison of current induction provision
2. discourse analysis - content of interviews with regard to level of group cohesion after induction. This would naturally be subjective as tutors will be talking about their own tutor groups or learner groups
3. statistical analysis - retention and attendance
4. semiotic analysis and statistical analysis - any relationship between different pieces of evidence, the 'signifier' and what has been 'signified'

Proposed Timetable:

1. create relevant consent forms
2. outline proposal to managers and obtain permission from them to carryout research
3. create questionnaires and interview questions for dissemination 
4. obtain and view statistical data to establish basis of hypothesis
5. make initial enquiries to department to ascertain willingness to participate
6. send out first set of questionnaires
7. develop further 'STAGE FOUR' of McNiff: Proposed Stages of Action on Blog

Literature Review:

References:

Croydon College. (2008) Equality and Diversity Report. Croydon: Croydon College

LSIS, (2008) Getting Started: A guide for colleges and providers preparing for implementation. Learning Skills Network on behalf of LSIS

QCA, (2008) Prospectus for Progression Pathways. Coventry: LSC, (LSC-P-NAT-080131)

Qualitative versus Quantitative Data Analysis

I thought it would be prudent to explore the meaning of both of these words and try and formulate an independent definition of each for my own understanding. This was the result of much pondering!

The definition of 'qualitative' research is:

'An organized study of a transitive and sequential nature, which accumulates a body of knowledge that could be both affirmative or negative, but is of intrinsic standing and worth to the researcher, due to its culminating features.' Horsley, 2009

However the overall feature of qualitative research is indeterminate, as it has no numerical meaning.

The definition of 'quantitative' research is:

'A logical and systematic study, determinant in its purpose for accumulating quantifiable and measurable data, to corroborate or contradict the researchers initial intentions.' Horsley, 2009

Hopkins states:

'Concepts of validity are of great importance to both quantitative and qualitative researchers. However, the latter has historically been charged as employing non-scientific methods in its analysis and thus, some would argue, as not being valid.' (2008:p.138)

For McNiff et al (2003:102) any data collected only becomes evidence when it can substantiate a line of reasoning, from supposition to certainty in practice. 

However, if evidence is to be the source of validation, then we need to be looking at all the facts. But if we only look toward measurable data, could this not be considered shortsighted. Could we not miss a fundamental truth if, as researchers, we do not consider the whole story and pithy those taking a more holistic approach.

Research is a collaborative partnership. Our intention as teachers doing research, is fundamental, our desire is to improve practice in delivery and enhance the experience for the recipient, our learners. The students centered approach has become an innate part of pedagogy today, as has humanism. We talk of equality and diversity, of feeling and values, how can we not ignore qualitative analysis in the pursuit of quantitative data. 

McNiff et al propose:

'You can judge the quality of your work as an action researcher by the extent to which other people begin to think and act in a way that is in harmony with your educational values.' (2003:p.103)

What we treasure is a reflection of what we are disciplined with. It is what we value that determines what we do with our time. Investments should be long lasting not temporary. Education is the acquisition of knowledge, not just an exercise in ticking boxes. It is both qualitative as well as quantitative.

A Good Childhood

Very interesting report by UNICEF - link attached. Could this be why we have so many disengaged teenagers today.

McNiff: Proposed Stages of Action

Eames, K. (1990) Growing your own. In: McNiff, J. (1993) Teaching as learning: an action research approach. Oxon: Routledge. p. 71

Eames states: 

'...action research is of immense importance to the professionality  of teachers. It's a form of knowledge produced by teachers,and primarily aimed at communicating with teachers, and at being used by teachers.' (Eames, 1990, In, McNiff, 1993:p.71)

This links with Hannan's (2006) thoughts about 'beginning research':

'...action research is likely to be better appreciated and used by teachers because it is done by them and for them and that insights generated by such work are more likely to influence teachers' practice than the theories produced by external experts.' Hannan, P. (2006) Beginning Research [on-line] . Plymouth, University of Plymouth. Available from: web-link

This reflects my own aim of research: to encourage collaboration in my place of work, by ensuring that I research an area of teaching that leads to improving the overall delivery of professional practice in the College.

Eames (1990) in (McNiff 1993:72) gives a process of stages that will help towards becoming an action researcher. The following is a modification of his first two stages towards research, that have been adapted to reflect my desired area of research for my proposal:

STAGE ONE:

Research idea: Could a comprehensive two week induction programme, improve retention and attendance of students

• reflect on your own learning processes - compare teaching approach with first cohort and approach now taken with second cohort
• apply your developing understanding personal practice to improving professional practice - think about the holistic approach you take towards e2e learners. What is the reason for this?
• use theoretical insights of academic writers to aid understanding - revisit Mercer's 'language and teaching' as well as Friere's view of learning as a 'constructivist process owned by the learner and facilitated by the teacher in interaction with the student which includes respect for the student and his/her view of the world.'

Eames (1990) states:

'Teaching is a value-laden activity, and we take action to improve our classroom practice, when we see that what is happening doesn't fit in with what we want to happen.' Eames (1990) in (McNiff 1993:73)

STAGE TWO:

• specific description of the identified problem - find out what the retention and attendance levels are of the January Starts and in the College in general.
• describe a possible solution to any identified problem - create an action research questionnaire to evaluate and compare the successes of the e2e induction to that of other departments
• disseminate questionnaires created then evaluate findings
• carry out interviews to generate more findings for triangulation 
• evaluate if there is any evidence to support my hypothesis 

Stages three and four are of my own creation.

STAGE THREE: second cycle of research to take place after submission of proposal

• Create a concise two week induction pack to include timetable and resources based on the e2e programme for departments to follow, preferably in time for the next intake of students
• Send out the same questionnaire to evaluate success of pilot solution
• Obtain statistics on retention and attendance of students to see if they have improved
• carry out interviews to see if following the two week induction pack improved cohesion of tutor groups and reduced stress levels of staff
• Triangulate findings of questionnaire, interview and statistics, to see if they support research hypothosis

STAGE FOUR: documenting findings

Proposed framework for research proposal

• Background - proposed topic of research, why I think it is needed
• Literature search of any previous work in this field
• Objective - aims and objectives of research
• Scope - outline of tasks to be undertaken
• Methodology and Approach - created self imposed questions
• (a) what are the constraints/limitations (if any)?
• (b) what are the technical challenges and uncertainties?
• (c) what are the different approaches to this problem?
• (d) what is my preferred approach and why?
• Facilities - is there any existing resources that can be utilized 
• Programme Schedule - proposed time frame for tasks to be completed and findings established and documented
• References - intended reading list etc.